Gastroenterology Research, ISSN 1918-2805 print, 1918-2813 online, Open Access
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Review

Volume 13, Number 6, December 2020, pages 233-245

Dietary Iron Intakes in Men in Europe Are Distinctly Above the Recommendations: A Review of 39 National Studies From 20 Countries in the Period 1995 - 2016

Tables

Table 1. The 37 European Countries Investigated in This Review of National Nutrition Surveys of Dietary Iron Intake in Men
 
Data on dietary iron available (n = 20)Data on dietary iron not performed or unavailable (n = 17)
AustriaAlbaniaNo email contact
BelgiumBelarusNo email contact
DenmarkBosnia and HerzegovinaNo email contact
FinlandBulgariaConfirmed by email
FranceCroatiaNo email contact
GermanyCyprusConfirmed by email
HungaryCzech RepublicEmailed, no response
IcelandEstoniaConfirmed by email
IrelandGreeceConfirmed by email
ItalyLatviaEmailed, no response
LithuaniaMoldovaNo email contact
NetherlandsMontenegroNo email contact
NorwayNorth MacedoniaNo email contact
PolandRomaniaConfirmed by email
PortugalRussiaEmailed, no response
SerbiaSloveniaNo email contact
SlovakiaSwitzerlandConfirmed by email
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom

 

Table 2. National Nutrition Surveys Quoting Dietary Iron Intake in Men in 20 European Countries in the Period 1995 - 2016
 
Country (name) of survey)Study periodMen, nAge range, yearsDietary methodDietary iron intake, mg/dayWeighted dataRecommended intake of iron at time of study, mg/dayIron intake in relation to recommended intakeReferences no.
Mean ± SDa/CIcMedianPercentiles IQRg
aMean ± SD: arithmetic mean ± standard deviation. bSEM: standard error of the mean. cCI: 95% confidence interval of the mean. d5 - 95 percentiles; e10 - 90 percentiles; f2.5 - 97.5 percentiles; gIQR: interquartile range = 25 - 75 percentiles. DRI: dietary reference intake; reference value used to plan and assess nutrient intake of healthy men (Institute of Medicine, USA). AR: estimated average requirement; daily intake levels estimated to meet the needs of half of the healthy men, provided a normal distribution of requirement. RDA: recommended dietary allowance; daily intake being sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97-98%) healthy men. RNI: reference nutrient intake also named population reference intake; daily intake being sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97.5%) healthy men. RI: recommended intake; daily intake being recommended to meet the nutrient requirements of healthy men. LRNI: lowest recommended nutrient intake; the amount of a nutrient, which is sufficient for only a few healthy men.
Austria (Osterreichischer Ernahrungsbericht)20072,39818 - 6424-h recallAbout 13.6NoRI 10Mean intake 36% > RI[19]
Austria (Osterreichischer Ernahrungsbericht)201114818 - 6424-h recall × 2About 11.9 (11.2 - 12.8)cYesRI 10Mean intake 19% > RI[20]
Austria (Osterreichischer Ernahrungsbericht)201673618 - 6424-h recall × 2About 13.5 ± 4.5YesRI 10Mean intake 35% > RI; 75% had intake ≥ RI[21]
Belgium (De Belgische Voedselconsumptiepeiling)200482919 - 7424-h recall × 212.9 ± 3.212.510.7 - 14.6gNoRI 9Median intake 39% > RI; 87% had intake ≥ RI[22]
Belgium (De Belgische Voedselconsumptiepeiling)201458918 - 6424-h recall × 211.2 (10.9 - 11.4)c10.8About 6.8 - 18.2fNoRI 9; AR 6Median intake 20% > RI; 75% had intake ≥ RI[23]
Denmark (Danskernes Kostvaner)2003 - 20081,56918 - 757 days food diary11.4 ± 3.311.17.4 - 15.6eNoRDA 9; AR 7Median intake 23% > RDA[24]
Denmark (Danskernes Kostvaner)2011 - 20131,46418 - 757 days food diary13.0 ± 3.912.78.3 - 18.0eNoRDA 9; AR 7Median intake 41% > RDA[25]
Finland (FINDIET)201279525 - 7424-h recall × 212 ± 5NoRDA 9; AR 7Mean intake 33% > RDA[26]
France (SU.VI.MAX)1995 - 19963,28345 - 606 days food diary16.7 ± 5.716.39.5 - 26.4dNoRDA 10Median intake 63% > RDA[27]
France (INCA1)1998 - 199961318 - 797 days food diaryAbout 15.1 ± 4.5NoRDA 10Mean intake 51% > RDA[28]
France (INCA2)2006 - 200784018 - 797 days food diaryAbout 14.8 ± 5.4NoRDA 10Mean intake 48% > RDA[28]
Germany (GENUS)19981,76318 - 794 weeks dietary history interview DISHES 98About 16.9 (16.7 - 17.2)cYesRDA 10Mean intake 69% > RDA[29]
Germany (Ernahrungsverhalten in Deutschland)19982,00018 - 644 weeks dietary history interview DISHES 98About 16.9About 11.4 - 24.5eYesRDA 10Median intake 69% > RDA; 4.5% had intake < RDA[30]
Germany (Nationale Verzehrsstudie II)2005 - 20064,91219 - 644 weeks dietary history interview DISHES 98About 15.7 ± 0.12bAbout 14.9About 22.7 - 25.8d; about 12.2 - 18.7gYesRDA 10Median intake 49% > RDA; about 14% had intake < RDA[31]
Hungary2003 - 200447318 - 643 days food diary12.5 ± 3.4YesRDA 10Mean intake 25% > RDA[32]
Hungary (OTAP)2009About 46718 - 643 days food diaryAbout 13.2 ± 0.3bYesRDA 10Mean intake 32% > RDA[33]
Hungary (OTAP)2014About 36018 - 643 days food diaryAbout 12.5 ± 0.4bYesRDA 10Mean intake 25% > RDA[34]
Iceland (Hvad borda Islendingar?)2010 - 201148118 - 6024-h recall × 213.1 ± 6.9NoRDA 9; AR 6Mean intake 46% > RDA[35]
Ireland (NSIFCS)1997 - 199966218 - 647 days food diary14.4 ± 5.513.47.6 - 25.8dNo[36]
Ireland (NANS)2008 - 2010About 62018 - 644 days food diary15.0 ± 9.0Yes[37]
Italy (INRAN-SCAI)2005 - 20061,06818 - 643 days food diary12.612.27.1 - 19.8dNo[38]
Lithuania2013 - 20141,04419 - 7524-h recall12.2No[39]
Netherlands (TNO Rapport)1997 - 19981,83619 - 652 days food diary12.9 ± 4.312.47.4 - 19.3dNo[40]
Netherlands (DNFCS)2007 - 20101,02319 - 6924-h recall × 213.112.77.7 - 19.4dNo[41]
Norway (NORKOST 3)2010 - 201186218 - 7024-h recall × 213 ± 41295% percentile 21, 10 - 15gYesRDA 9; AR 6Median intake 44% > RDA[42]
Poland (Household Food Consumption in Poland)20001,09818 - 6024-h recall17.25% percentile 8.4NoRNI 8.7; AR 6.7; LRNI 4.7Mean intake 98% > RNI; 2% had intake < AR; 0.6% had intake < LRNI[16]
Portugal (IAN-AF)2015 - 20161,82118 - 6424-h recall × 213.312.610.0 - 15.9gYesAR 60.8% had intake < AR[43]
Serbia (YUSAD)200351830 - 597 days household food consumption survey16.65% percentile 8.4RNI 8.7; AR 6.7; LRNI 4.7Mean intake 91% > RNI; 13% had intake < AR; 9% had intake < LRNI[44]
Serbia2013 - 201512825 - 6524-h recall × 311.6 ± 5.4NoRNI 8; AR 6Mean intake 45% > RNI[45]
Slovakia (Dietary Habits of the Slovak Population)1995 - 199943918 - 8024-h recall22.7 ± 8.5NoMean intake 24% > RDA[46]
Spain (ENIDE)2009 - 20101,58918 - 643 days food diary + 24-h recall16.1 ± 6.5 (± 0.16)b16.012 - 21dYesRNI 10; AR 6Mean intake 61% > RNI[47]
Spain (ANIBES)2013232 plausible19 - 753 days food diary14.712.4 - 17.1gNoRNI 10; AR 6Median intake 47% > RNI[48]
Sweden (Riksmaten)2010 - 201179218 - 804 days food diary11.5 ± 4.110.86.2 - 18.8dNoRDA 9; AR 6Median intake 20% > RDA[49]
UK-Northern Ireland (NDNS RP)2008 - 2012 combined14519 - 644 days food diary11.0 ± 3.610.54.6 - 18.4fYesRNI 8.7; LRNI 4.7Median intake 21% > RNI; 11% had intake < LRNI[50]
UK-Scotland (NDNS RP)2008 - 2012 combined34919 - 644 days food diaryAbout 11.5 ± 3.511.5About 6.0 - 19.0fYesRNI 8.7Median intake 32% > RNI[51]
UK-Wales (NDNS RP)2009/2010 and 2012/201313019 - 644 days food diary11.2 ± 4.310.64.2 - 20.0fYesRNI 8.7Median intake 22% > RNI[52]
UK (NDNS RP) years 1 - 22008/2009 and 2009/201053419 - 644 days food diary11.9 ± 4.311.55.7 - 22.6gYesRNI 8.7; LRNI 4.7Median intake 32% > RNI; 1% had intake < LRNI[53]
UK (NDNS RP) years 1 - 42008/2009 and 2011/20121,12619 - 644 days food diary11.7 ± 4.011.55.3 - 21.2fYesRNI 8.7; LNRI 4.7Median intake 32% > RNI[53]
UK (NDNS RP) years 5 - 62012/2013 and 2013/201437319 - 644 days food diary11.5 ± 4.011.04.9 - 19.8fYesRNI 8.7; LRNI 4.7Median intake 26% > RNI; 1% had intake < LRNI[54]

 

Table 3. Association Between Nutrient Density for Iron and Dietary Iron Intake in Men in the Three Nordic Countries Denmark, Sweden, Finland and in France
 
CountryNutrient density iron in men, mg/10 MJDietary iron intake in men, mg/dayNutrient density iron in women, mg/10 MJReferences no.
For comparison, nutrient density for women in the same surveys is shown. Correlation between nutrient density and dietary iron intake: Spearman’s rs = 0.5, P < 0.4. aArithmetic mean ± standard deviation. bMedian. c10 - 90 percentiles. d5 - 95 percentiles.
Denmark11.8 ± 2.2a
11.6b
9.2 - 14.5c		13.0a
12.7b		12.0 ± 2.1a
11.9b		[25]
Sweden12.5 ± 3.4a
12.0b
8.3 - 18.3e		11.5a
10.8b		13.1 ± 4.5a
12.4b		[49]
Ireland12.7 ± 3.0a
12.2b		14.4a
13.4b		13.5 ± 4.2a
12.7b		[36]
Finland14.0 ± 4a12.0b14.0 ± 6a[26]
France16.0b
12.0 - 23.7d		16.7a
16.3b		15.8b
11.5 - 24.4d		[27]
“Median”12.713.5

 

Table 4. Dietary Iron Intake in Men in 20 European Countries, Arranged According to Median/Arithmetic Mean Iron Intake
 
Country (n = 20)Iron intake median or meana, mg/dayIron intake above country specific RI, %Iron intake above RI 9 mg/day, %Iron intake above AR 6.4 mg/day, %References no.
When both median and mean intakes are reported, median intake is shown; mean intake is shown in surveys not reporting median intake. The overall RNI and AR are set at 9 mg/day and 6.4 mg/day, respectively, i.e., the median of the RNI and AR values in Table 5. aArithmetic mean. UK: United Kingdom; RI: recommended intake; AR: estimated average requirement; RNI: reference nutrient intake.
Slovakia22.7a152255[46]
Poland17.2a9891169[16]
Spain16.06178150[47]
Ireland15.0a67134[37]
Germany14.94966133[31]
France14.8a4864131[28]
Austria13.5a3550111[21]
Iceland13.1a4646105[35]
Denmark12.7414198[25]
Netherlands12.74198[41]
Portugal12.64097[43]
Hungary12.5a253995[34]
Italy12.23691[38]
Lithuania12.2a3691[39]
Finland12.0a333388[26]
Norway12.0444488[42]
Serbia11.6a452981[45]
UK-England11.5322880[53]
UK-Scotland11.5322880[51]
Belgium10.8202069[23]
Sweden10.8202069[49]
UK-Wales10.6221866[52]
UK-Northern Ireland10.5211764[50]

 

Table 5. RNI and AR for Dietary Iron in Men 18 - 70 Years Old in Europe and USA
 
InstitutionIron intake, mg/dayReferences no.
RNIAR
*Provided 18% food iron bioavailability; **15% bioavailability; ***16% bioavailability. IOM: Institute of Medicine (USA); FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; WHO: World Health Organization; NNR: Nordic Nutrition Recommendations; COMA: Committee on Medical Aspects of Food and Nutrition Policy for the Department of Health UK; SACN: Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (UK); BNF: British Nutrition Foundation; SCF-EU: Scientific Committee for Food of the European Community; EFSA: European Food Safety Authority; AR: estimated average requirement; RNI: reference nutrient intake.
IOM 20018*6[68]
FAO/WHO 20019.1**[69]
NNR 20129**7[70]
COMA-DH 1991, SACN 2010, BNF 20198.7**6.7[71, 72, 73]
SCF-EU 199397[74]
EFSA 2015, 201711***6[17, 75]
Median96.4

 

Table 6. Intake of Energy, Meat and Alcohol in Men and Women (Arithmetic Mean ± Standard Deviation) in Five European National Dietary Surveys
 
CountryEnergy, MJ/dayMeat, g/dayAlcohol, g/dayReferences no.
MenWomenMenWomenMenWomen
Denmark11.2 ± 3.28.4 ± 2.3172 ± 8899 ± 5320 ± 2111 ± 13[25]
Finland9.4 ± 2.97.3 ± 2.1182 ± 126105 ± 748 ± 183 ± 9[26]
Sweden9.6 ± 2.87.5 ± 2.288 ± 5855 ± 3613 ± 177 ± 11[49]
Ireland11.0 ± 3.17.6 ± 2.023 ± 309 ± 13[36]
France10.5 ± 2.28.4 ± 1.716612625 ± 2420 ± 20[28, 76]